The study used electrospinning to prepare PAN/F127 as the inner layer and PVB/PDMS as the outer layer of nanofiber membranes; flexible electrode patterns were then created on polyimide copper films using thermal transfer printing, and localized compression was applied to improve fabrication efficiency and alignment accuracy. The working electrodes were modified with either enzyme/Nafion or ion-selective membranes, while electrodes, reference electrodes, temperature electrodes, and impedance electrodes were made by magnetron sputtering. The research also conducted finite element fluid simulations to compare sweat diffusion in nanofibers versus typical microchannels. Material properties were evaluated using SEM, contact angle, thermal analysis, water vapor transmission, and optical measurements. Electrochemical tests, cytotoxicity studies, animal skin histology, and human exercise trials were also performed.

Results:

The inner nanofibers show good hydrophilicity and fast, even diffusion, which helps sweat transfer to the electrodes. The outer layer remains hydrophobic, waterproof, stain-resistant, and provides radiative cooling, helping protect the sensors and maintain enzyme activity. The multi-analyte sensor is sensitive, selective, and resistant to interference for target biomarkers, maintaining high performance even after long-term storage and repeated bending, while also being breathable and biocompatible. The D-CARE system enables wireless real-time monitoring, with sweat biomarkers, skin temperature, and impedance changing dynamically during exercise. Deep learning correction improves data reliability, and tests on multiple subjects show consistent physiological trends.

Original Link

DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2026.179180

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